Heart failure is responsible for more than half a million deaths annually in the U.S. Its prevalence is increasing worldwide, likely due to improved survival of those who have had an acute myocardial infarction and an aging population. Median survival rates after the first hospitalization associated with heart failure are worse than those of most cancers, but have improved over the past 30 years (1.3 to 2.3 years in men and 1.3 to 1.7 years in women) (Jhund et al., 2009). This positive trend was associated with a 2- to 3-fold higher prescription rate of ACEIs and ARBs, β receptor antagonists (β blockers), and MRAs, suggesting that improved drug therapy has contributed to enhanced survival of heart failure.
Abbreviations
ACC: American College of Cardiology
ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme
ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor
ACh: acetylcholine
ADH: antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
ADR: adverse drug reaction
AF: atrial fibrillation
AHA: American Heart Association
AngII: angiotensin II
ANP: atrial natriuretic peptide
ARB: AT1 angiotensin receptor antagonist (blocker)
ARNI: angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor
AV: atrioventricular
AVP: arginine vasopressin
BB: β blocker
BNP: brain-type natriuretic peptide
CAD: coronary artery disease
CCB: calcium channel blocker
CG: cardiac glycoside
CHF: congestive heart failure
CM: cardiomyopathy
CNP: C-type natriuretic peptide
COX: cyclooxygenase
CPT1: Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1
CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy
CYP: cytochrome P450
DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy
DM: diabetes mellitus
ECG: electrocardiogram
EF: ejection fraction
EMA: European Medicines Agency
eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase
EPI: epinephrine
ESC: European Society of Cardiology
ET: endothelin
FDA: Food and Drug Administration
GC: guanylyl cyclase
GDMT: guideline-directed medical therapy
GFR: glomerular filtration rate
GI: gastrointestinal
GPCR: G protein–coupled receptor
GTN: glycerol trinitrate
HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
HCN: hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide–gated cation channel
HF: heart failure
HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (diastolic heart failure)
HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (systolic heart failure)
HMG CoA: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A
HRQOL: health-related quality of life
HTN: hypertension
ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator
ISDN: isosorbide 2,5′-dinitrate
ISMN: isosorbide 5′-mononitrate
LV: left ventricular
LVH: left ventricular hypertrophy
MCS: mechanical circulatory support
MI: myocardial infarction
MRA: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist
NCX: Na+/Ca2+ exchanger
NE: norepinephrine
NO: nitric oxide
NSAID: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
NYHA: New York Heart Association
PD: pharmacodynamic
PDE: cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase
PKA: protein kinase A
PLB: phospholamban
PLM: phospholemman
RAAS: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
ROS: reactive oxygen species
RyR: ryanodine receptor
SERCA: sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase
sGC: soluble guanylyl cyclase
SL: sarcolemma
SNS: sympathetic nervous system
SR: sarcoplasmic reticulum
TnC: troponin C
TNF: tumor necrosis factor
TnI: inhibitory subunit of troponin
Heart failure is a state in which the heart is unable to pump blood at a rate commensurate with the requirements of the body’s tissues or can do so only at elevated filling pressure. This leads to symptoms that define the heart failure syndrome clinically. Low output (forward failure) causes ...