APPENDIX: LABORATORY VALUES OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Alexander Kratz; Michael A. Pesce; Robert C. Basner; Andrew J. Einstein

INTRODUCTION

This Appendix contains tables of reference values for laboratory tests, special analytes, and special function tests. A variety of factors can influence reference values. Such variables include the population studied, the duration and means of specimen transport, laboratory methods and instrumentation, and even the type of container used for the collection of the specimen. The reference or "normal" ranges given in this appendix may therefore not be appropriate for all laboratories, and these values should only be used as general guidelines. Whenever possible, reference values provided by the laboratory performing the testing should be utilized in the interpretation of laboratory data. Values supplied in this Appendix reflect typical reference ranges in adults. Pediatric reference ranges may vary significantly from adult values.

In preparing the Appendix, the authors have taken into account the fact that the system of international units (SI, système international d'unités) is used in most countries and in some medical journals. However, clinical laboratories may continue to report values in "traditional" or conventional units. Therefore, both systems are provided in the Appendix. The dual system is also used in the text except for (1) those instances in which the numbers remain the same but only the terminology is changed (mmol/L for meq/L or IU/L for mIU/mL), when only the SI units are given, and (2) most pressure measurements (e.g., blood and cerebrospinal fluid pressures), when the traditional units (mmHg, mmH₂O) are used. In all other instances in the text, the SI unit is followed by the traditional unit in parentheses.

REFERENCE VALUES FOR LABORATORY TESTS

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TABLE 1HEMATOLOGY AND COAGULATION

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TABLE 1HEMATOLOGY AND COAGULATION

ANALYTE

SPECIMEN

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Activated clotting time

70–180 s

Activated protein C resistance (factor V Leiden)

Not applicable

Ratio >2.1

ADAMTS13 activity

≥0.67

≥67%

ADAMTS13 inhibitor activity

Not applicable

≤0.4 U

ADAMTS13 antibody

Not applicable

≤18 U

Alpha₂ antiplasmin

0.87–1.55

87–155%

Antiphospholipid antibody panel

PTT-LA (lupus anticoagulant screen)

Negative

Platelet neutralization procedure

Negative

Dilute viper venom screen

Negative

Anticardiolipin antibody

IgG

0–15 arbitrary units

0–15 GPL

IgM

0–15 arbitrary units

0–15 MPL

Antithrombin III

Antigenic

220–390 mg/L

22–39 mg/dL

Functional

0.7–1.30 U/L

70–130%

Anti-Xa assay (heparin assay)

Unfractionated heparin

0.3–0.7 kIU/L

0.3–0.7 IU/mL

Low-molecular-weight heparin

0.5–1.0 kIU/L

0.5–1.0 IU/mL

Danaparoid (Orgaran)

0.5–0.8 kIU/L

0.5–0.8 IU/mL

Autohemolysis test

0.004–0.045

0.4–4.50%

Autohemolysis test with glucose

0.003–0.007

0.3–0.7%

Bleeding time (adult)

<7.1 min

Bone marrow: See Table 7

Clot retraction

0.50–1.00/2 h

50–100%/2 h

Cryofibrinogen

Negative

D-dimer

220–740 ng/mL FEU

Differential blood count

Relative counts:

Neutrophils

0.40–0.70

40–70%

Bands

0.0–0.05

0–5%

Lymphocytes

0.20–0.50

20–50%

Monocytes

0.04–0.08

4–8%

Eosinophils

0.0–0.6

0–6%

Basophils

0.0–0.02

0–2%

Absolute counts:

Neutrophils

1.42–6.34 × 10⁹/L

1420–6340/mm³

Bands

0–0.45 × 10⁹/L

0–450/mm³

Lymphocytes

0.71–4.53 × 10⁹/L

710–4530/mm³

Monocytes

0.14–0.72 × 10⁹/L

140–720/mm³

Eosinophils

0–0.54 × 10⁹/L

0–540/mm³

Basophils

0–0.18 × 10⁹/L

0–180/mm³

Erythrocyte count

Adult males

4.30–5.60 × 10¹²/L

4.30–5.60 × 10⁶/mm³

Adult females

4.00–5.20 × 10¹²/L

4.00–5.20 × 10⁶/mm³

Erythrocyte life span

Normal survival

120 days

Chromium labeled, half-life (t_1/2)

25–35 days

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

Females

0–20 mm/h

Males

0–15 mm/h

Euglobulin lysis time

7200–14400 s

120–240 min

Factor II, prothrombin

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor V

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor VII

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor VIII

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor IX

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor X

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor XI

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor XII

0.50–1.50

50–150%

Factor XIII screen

Not applicable

Present

Factor inhibitor assay

<0.5 Bethesda Units

Fibrin(ogen) degradation products

0–1 mg/L

0–1 μg/mL

Fibrinogen

2.33–4.96 g/L

233–496 mg/dL

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (erythrocyte)

<2400 s

<40 min

Ham's test (acid serum)

Negative

Hematocrit

Adult males

0.388–0.464

38.8–46.4

Adult females

0.354–0.444

35.4–44.4

Hemoglobin

Plasma

6–50 mg/L

0.6–5.0 mg/dL

Whole blood:

Adult males

133–162 g/L

13.3–16.2 g/dL

Adult females

120–158 g/L

12.0–15.8 g/dL

Hemoglobin electrophoresis

Hemoglobin A

0.95–0.98

95–98%

Hemoglobin A₂

0.015–0.031

1.5–3.1%

Hemoglobin F

0–0.02

0–2.0%

Hemoglobins other than A, A₂, or F

Absent

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia antibody

Negative

Immature platelet fraction (IPF)

0.011–0.061

1.1–6.1%

Joint fluid crystal

Not applicable

No crystals seen

Joint fluid mucin

Not applicable

Only type I mucin present

Leukocytes

Alkaline phosphatase (LAP)

0.2–1.6 μkat/L

13–100 μ/L

Count (WBC)

3.54–9.06 × 10⁹/L

3.54–9.06 × 10³/mm³

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH)

26.7–31.9 pg/cell

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC)

323–359 g/L

32.3–35.9 g/dL

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin of reticulocytes (CH)

24–36 pg

Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)

79–93.3 fL

79–93.3 μm³

Mean platelet volume (MPV)

9.00–12.95 fL

9.00–12.95

Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes

Direct

0.0035–0.0045

0.35–0.45%

Indirect

0.0030–0.0065

0.30–0.65%

Partial thromboplastin time, activated

26.3–39.4 s

Plasminogen

Antigen

84–140 mg/L

8.4–14.0 mg/dL

Functional

0.70–1.30

70–130%

Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1

4–43 μg/L

4–43 ng/mL

Platelet aggregation

PRP

Not applicable

>65% aggregation in response to adenosine diphosphate, epinephrine, collagen, ristocetin, and arachidonic acid

Platelet count

165–415 × 10⁹/L

165–415 × 10³/mm³

Platelet, mean volume

6.4–11 fL

6.4–11.0 μm³

Prekallikrein assay

0.50–1.5

50–150%

Prekallikrein screen

No deficiency detected

Protein C

Total antigen

0.70–1.40

70–140%

Functional

0.70–1.30

70–130%

Protein S

Total antigen

0.70–1.40

70–140%

Functional

0.65–1.40

65–140%

Free antigen

0.70–1.40

70–140%

Prothrombin gene mutation G20210A

Not applicable

Not present

Prothrombin time

12.7–15.4 s

Protoporphyrin, free erythrocyte

0.28–0.64 μmol/L of red blood cells

16–36 μg/dL of red blood cells

Red cell distribution width

<0.145

<14.5%

Reptilase time

16–23.6 s

Reticulocyte count

Adult males

0.008–0.023 red cells

0.8–2.3% red cells

Adult females

0.008–0.020 red cells

0.8–2.0% red cells

Reticulocyte hemoglobin content

>26 pg/cell

Ristocetin cofactor (functional von Willebrand factor)

Blood group O

0.75 mean of normal

75% mean of normal

Blood group A

1.05 mean of normal

105% mean of normal

Blood group B

1.15 mean of normal

115% mean of normal

Blood group AB

1.25 mean of normal

125% mean of normal

Serotonin release assay

<0.2 release

<20% release

Sickle cell test

Negative

Sucrose hemolysis

<0.1

<10% hemolysis

Thrombin time

15.3–18.5 s

Total eosinophils

150–300 × 10⁶/L

150–300/mm³

Transferrin receptor

S, P

9.6–29.6 nmol/L

Viscosity

Plasma

1.7–2.1

Serum

1.4–1.8

von Willebrand factor (vWF) antigen (factor VIII:R antigen)

Blood group O

0.75 mean of normal

75% mean of normal

Blood group A

1.05 mean of normal

105% mean of normal

Blood group B

1.15 mean of normal

115% mean of normal

Blood group AB

1.25 mean of normal

125% mean of normal

von Willebrand factor multimers

Normal distribution

White blood cells: see "Leukocytes"

Abbreviations: JF, joint fluid; P, plasma; PRP, platelet-rich plasma; S, serum; WB, whole blood.

TABLE 2CLINICAL CHEMISTRY AND IMMUNOLOGY

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TABLE 2CLINICAL CHEMISTRY AND IMMUNOLOGY

ANALYTE

SPECIMEN

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Acetoacetate

49–294 μmol/L

0.5–3.0 mg/dL

Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)

1.3–16.7 pmol/L

6.0–76.0 pg/mL

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT, SGPT)

0.12–0.70 μkat/L

7–41 U/L

Albumin

40–50 g/L

4.0–5.0 mg/dL

Aldolase

26–138 nkat/L

1.5–8.1 U/L

Aldosterone (adult)

Supine, normal sodium diet

S, P

<443 pmol/L

<16 ng/dL

Upright, normal

S, P

111–858 pmol/L

4–31 ng/dL

Alpha fetoprotein (adult)

0–8.5 μg/L

0–8.5 ng/mL

Alpha₁ antitrypsin

1.0–2.0 g/L

100–200 mg/dL

Ammonia, as NH₃

11–35 μmol/L

19–60 μg/dL

Amylase (method dependent)

0.34–1.6 μkat/L

20–96 U/L

Androstendione (adult)

Males

0.81–3.1 nmol/L

23–89 ng/dL

Females

Premenopausal

0.91–7.5 nmol/L

26–214 ng/dL

Postmenopausal

0.46–2.9 nmol/L

13–82 ng/dL

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

0.15–1.1 μkat/L

9–67 U/L

Anion gap

7–16 mmol/L

Apolipoprotein A-1

Male

0.94–1.78 g/L

94–178 mg/dL

Female

1.01–1.99 g/L

101–199 mg/dL

Apolipoprotein B

Male

0.55–1.40 g/L

55–140 mg/dL

Female

0.55–1.25 g/L

55–125 mg/dL

Arterial blood gases

[HCO₃^–]

22–30 mmol/L

22–30 meq/L

PCO₂

4.3–6.0 kPa

32–45 mmHg

7.35–7.45

PO₂

9.6–13.8 kPa

72–104 mmHg

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, SGOT)

0.20–0.65 μkat/L

12–38 U/L

Autoantibodies

Anti-centromere antibody IgG

≤29 AU/mL

Anti-double-strand (native) DNA

<25 IU/L

Anti-glomerular basement membrane antibodies

Qualitative IgG, IgA

Negative

Quantitative IgG antibody

≤19 AU/mL

Anti-histone antibodies

<1.0 U

Anti-Jo-1 antibody

≤29 AU/mL

Anti-mitochondrial antibody

Not applicable

<20 Units

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies

Not applicable

<1:20

Serine proteinase 3 antibodies

≤19 AU/mL

Myeloperoxidase antibodies

≤19 AU/mL

Antinuclear antibody

Not applicable

Negative at 1:40

Anti-parietal cell antibody

Not applicable

None detected

Anti-RNP antibody

Not applicable

<1.0 U

Anti-Scl 70 antibody

Not applicable

<1.0 U

Anti-Smith antibody

Not applicable

<1.0 U

Anti–smooth muscle antibody

Not applicable

<1.0 U

Anti-SSA antibody

Not applicable

<1.0 U

Anti-SSB antibody

Not applicable

Negative

Anti-thyroglobulin antibody

<40 kIU/L

<40 IU/mL

Anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody

<35 kIU/L

<35 IU/mL

B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)

Age and gender specific: <100 ng/L

Age and gender specific: <100 pg/mL

Bence Jones protein, serum qualitative

Not applicable

None detected

Bence Jones protein, serum quantitative

Free kappa

3.3–19.4 mg/L

0.33–1.94 mg/dL

Free lambda

5.7–26.3 mg/L

0.57–2.63 mg/dL

K/L ratio

0.26–1.65

Beta-2-microglobulin

1.1–2.4 mg/L

Bilirubin

Total

5.1–22 μmol/L

0.3–1.3 mg/dL

Direct

1.7–6.8 μmol/L

0.1–0.4 mg/dL

Indirect

3.4–15.2 μmol/L

0.2–0.9 mg/dL

C peptide

0.27–1.19 nmol/L

0.8–3.5 ng/mL

C1-esterase-inhibitor protein

210–390 mg/L

21–39 mg/dL

CA 125

<35 kU/L

<35 U/mL

CA 19-9

<37 kU/L

<37 U/mL

CA 15-3

<33 kU/L

<33 U/mL

CA 27-29

0–40 kU/L

0–40 U/mL

Calcitonin

Male

0–7.5 ng/L

0–7.5 pg/mL

Female

0–5.1 ng/L

0–5.1 pg/mL

Calcium

2.2–2.6 mmol/L

8.7–10.2 mg/dL

Calcium, ionized

1.12–1.32 mmol/L

4.5–5.3 mg/dL

Carbon dioxide content (TCO₂)

P (sea level)

22–30 mmol/L

22–30 meq/L

Carboxyhemoglobin (carbon monoxide content)

Nonsmokers

0.0–0.015

0–1.5%

Smokers

0.04–0.09

4–9%

Loss of consciousness and death

>0.50

>50%

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)

Nonsmokers

0.0–3.0 μg/L

0.0–3.0 ng/mL

Smokers

0.0–5.0 μg/L

0.0–5.0 ng/mL

Ceruloplasmin

250–630 mg/L

25–63 mg/dL

Chloride

102–109 mmol/L

102–109 meq/L

Cholesterol: see Table 5

Cholinesterase

5–12 kU/L

5–12 U/mL

Chromogranin A

0–50 μg/L

0–50 ng/mL

Complement

0.83–1.77 g/L

83–177 mg/dL

0.16–0.47 g/L

16–47 mg/dL

Complement total

60–144 CAE units

Cortisol

Fasting, 8 A.M.–12 noon

138–690 nmol/L

5–25 μg/dL

12 noon–8 P.M.

138–414 nmol/L

5–15 μg/dL

8 P.M.–8 A.M.

0–276 nmol/L

0–10 μg/dL

C-reactive protein

<10 mg/L

C-reactive protein, high sensitivity

Cardiac risk

Low: <1.0 mg/L

Average: 1.0–3.0 mg/L

High: >3.0 mg/L

Cardiac risk

Low: <1.0 mg/L

Average: 1.0–3.0 mg/L

High: >3.0 mg/L

Creatine kinase (total)

Females

0.66–4.0 μkat/L

39–238 U/L

Males

0.87–5.0 μkat/L

51–294 U/L

Creatine kinase-MB

Mass

0.0–5.5 μg/L

0.0–5.5 ng/mL

Fraction of total activity (by electrophoresis)

0–0.04

0–4.0%

Creatinine

Female

44–80 μmol/L

0.5–0.9 mg/dL

Male

53–106 μmol/L

0.6–1.2 mg/dL

Cryoglobulins

Not applicable

None detected

Cystatin C

0.5–1.0 mg/L

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) (adult)

Male

6.2–43.4 nmol/L

180–1250 ng/dL

Female

4.5–34.0 nmol/L

130–980 ng/dL

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) sulfate

Male (adult)

100–6190 μg/L

10–619 μg/dL

Female (adult, premenopausal)

120–5350 μg/L

12–535 μg/dL

Female (adult, postmenopausal)

300–2600 μg/L

30–260 μg/dL

11-Deoxycortisol (adult) (compound S)

0.34–4.56 nmol/L

12–158 ng/dL

Dihydrotestosterone

Male

S, P

1.03–2.92 nmol/L

30–85 ng/dL

Female

0.14–0.76 nmol/L

4–22 ng/dL

Dopamine

0–130 pmol/L

0–20 pg/mL

Epinephrine

Supine (30 min)

<273 pmol/L

<50 pg/mL

Sitting

<328 pmol/L

<60 pg/mL

Standing (30 min)

<491 pmol/L

<90 pg/mL

Erythropoietin

4–27 U/L

Estradiol

S, P

Female

Menstruating:

Follicular phase

74–532 pmol/L

<20–145 pg/mL

Midcycle peak

411–1626 pmol/L

112–443 pg/mL

Luteal phase

74–885 pmol/L

<20–241 pg/mL

Postmenopausal

217 pmol/L

<59 pg/mL

Male

74 pmol/L

<20 pg/mL

Estrone

S, P

Female

Menstruating:

Follicular phase

<555 pmol/L

<150 pg/mL

Luteal phase

<740 pmol/L

<200 pg/mL

Postmenopausal

11–118 pmol/L

3–32 pg/mL

Male

33–133 pmol/L

9–36 pg/mL

Fatty acids, free (nonesterified)

0.1–0.6 mmol/L

2.8–16.8 mg/dL

Ferritin

Female

10–150 μg/L

10–150 ng/mL

Male

29–248 μg/L

29–248 ng/mL

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

S, P

Female

Menstruating

Follicular phase

3.0–20.0 IU/L

3.0–20.0 mIU/mL

Ovulatory phase

9.0–26.0 IU/L

9.0–26.0 mIU/mL

Luteal phase

1.0–12.0 IU/L

1.0–12.0 mIU/mL

Postmenopausal

18.0–153.0 IU/L

18.0–153.0 mIU/mL

Male

1.0–12.0 IU/L

1.0–12.0 mIU/mL

Fructosamine

<285 umol/L

Gamma glutamyltransferase

0.15–0.99 μkat/L

9–58 U/L

Gastrin

<100 ng/L

<100 pg/mL

Glucagon

40–130 ng/L

40–130 pg/mL

Glucose

3.6–5.3 mmol/L

65–95 mg/dL

Glucose (fasting)

Normal

4.2–5.6 mmol/L

75–100 mg/dL

Increased risk for diabetes

5.6–6.9 mmol/L

100–125 mg/dL

Diabetes mellitus

Fasting >7.0 mmol/L

A 2-hour level of >11.1 mmol/L during an oral glucose tolerance test

A random glucose level of ≥11.1 mmol/L in patients with symptoms of hyperglycemia

Fasting >126 mg/dL

A 2-hour level of ≥200 mg/dL during an oral glucose tolerance test

A random glucose level of ≥200 mg/dL in patients with symptoms of hyperglycemia

Growth hormone

0–5 μg/L

0–5 ng/mL

Hemoglobin A_1c

Pre-diabetes

0.04–0.06 HgB fraction

4.0–5.6%

Diabetes mellitus

0.057–0.064 HgB fraction

A hemoglobin A_1c level of ≥0.065 Hgb fraction as suggested by the American Diabetes Association

5.7–6.4%

A hemoglobin A_1c level of ≥6.5% as suggested by the American Diabetes Association

Hemoglobin A_1c with estimated average glucose (eAg)

eAg (mmoL/L) = 1.59 × HbA_1c – 2.59

eAg (mg/dL) = 28.7 × HbA_1c – 46.7

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) (see Table 5)

Homocysteine

4.4–10.8 μmol/L

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Nonpregnant female

<5 IU/L

<5 mIU/mL

1–2 weeks postconception

9–130 IU/L

9–130 mIU/mL

2–3 weeks postconception

75–2600 IU/L

75–2600 mIU/mL

3–4 weeks postconception

850–20,800 IU/L

850–20,800 mIU/mL

4–5 weeks postconception

4000–100,200 IU/L

4000–100,200 mIU/mL

5–10 weeks postconception

11,500–289,000 IU/L

11,500–289,000 mIU/mL

10–14 weeks post conception

18,300–137,000 IU/L

18,300–137,000 mIU/mL

Second trimester

1400–53,000 IU/L

1400–53,000 mIU/mL

Third trimester

940–60,000 IU/L

940–60,000 mIU/mL

β-Hydroxybutyrate

60–170 μmol/L

0.6–1.8 mg/dL

17-Hydroxyprogesterone (adult)

Male

<4.17 nmol/L

<139 ng/dL

Female

Follicular phase

0.45–2.1 nmol/L

15–70 ng/dL

Luteal phase

1.05–8.7 nmol/L

35–290 ng/dL

Immunofixation

Not applicable

No bands detected

Immunoglobulin, quantitation (adult)

IgA

IgD

IgE

IgG

IgG₁

IgG₂

IgG₃

IgG₄

IgM

0.70–3.50 g/L

0–140 mg/L

1–87 kIU/L

7.0–17.0 g/L

2.7–17.4 g/L

0.3–6.3 g/L

0.13–3.2 g/L

0.11–6.2 g/L

0.50–3.0 g/L

70–350 mg/dL

0–14 mg/dL

1–87 IU/mL

700–1700 mg/dL

270–1740 mg/dL

30–630 mg/dL

13–320 mg/dL

11–620 mg/dL

50–300 mg/dL

Insulin

S, P

14.35–143.5 pmol/L

2–20 μU/mL

Iron

7–25 μmol/L

41–141 μg/dL

Iron-binding capacity

45–73 μmol/L

251–406 μg/dL

Iron-binding capacity saturation

0.16–0.35

16–35%

Ischemia modified albumin

<85 KU/L

<85 U/mL

Joint fluid crystal

Not applicable

No crystals seen

Joint fluid mucin

Not applicable

Only type I mucin present

Ketone (acetone)

Negative

Lactate

P, arterial

P, venous

0.5–1.6 mmol/L

0.5–2.2 mmol/L

4.5–14.4 mg/dL

4.5–19.8 mg/dL

Lactate dehydrogenase

2.0–3.8 μkat/L

115–221 U/L

Lipase

0.51–0.73 μkat/L

3–43 U/L

Lipids: see Table 5

Lipoprotein (a)

0–300 mg/L

0–30 mg/dL

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (see Table 5)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

S, P

Female

Menstruating

Follicular phase

Ovulatory phase

Luteal phase

Postmenopausal

Male

2.0–15.0 U/L

22.0–105.0 U/L

0.6–19.0 U/L

16.0–64.0 U/L

2.0–12.0 U/L

2.0–15.0 mIU/mL

22.0–105.0 mIU/mL

0.6–19.0 mIU/mL

16.0–64.0 mIU/mL

2.0–12.0 mIU/mL

Magnesium

0.62–0.95 mmol/L

1.5–2.3 mg/dL

Metanephrine

<0.5 nmol/L

<100 pg/mL

Methemoglobin

0.0–0.01

0–1%

Myoglobin

Male

Female

20–71 μg/L

25–58 μg/L

20–71 μg/L

25–58 μg/L

Norepinephrine

Supine (30 min)

Sitting

Standing (30 min)

650–2423 pmol/L

709–4019 pmol/L

739–4137 pmol/L

110–410 pg/mL

120–680 pg/mL

125–700 pg/mL

N-telopeptide (cross-linked), NTx

Female, premenopausal

Male

6.2–19.0 nmol BCE

5.4–24.2 nmol BCE

6.2–19.0 nmol BCE

5.4–24.2 nmol BCE

NT-Pro BNP

S, P

<125 ng/L up to 75 years

<450 ng/L >75 years

<125 pg/mL up to 75 years

<450 pg/mL >75 years

5′ Nucleotidase

0.00–0.19 μkat/L

0–11 U/L

Osmolality

275–295 mOsmol/kg serum water

Osteocalcin

11–50 μg/L

11–50 ng/mL

Oxygen content

Arterial (sea level)

Venous (sea level)

17–21

10–16

17–21 vol%

10–16 vol%

Oxygen saturation (sea level)

Arterial

Venous, arm

Fraction:

0.94–1.0

0.60–0.85

Percent:

94–100%

60–85%

Parathyroid hormone (intact)

8–51 ng/L

8–51 pg/mL

Phosphatase, alkaline

0.56–1.63 μkat/L

33–96 U/L

Phosphorus, inorganic

0.81–1.4 mmol/L

2.5–4.3 mg/dL

Potassium

3.5–5.0 mmol/L

3.5–5.0 meq/L

Prealbumin

170–340 mg/L

17–34 mg/dL

Procalcitonin

<0.1 μg/L

<0.1 ng/mL

Progesterone

S, P

Female: Follicular

Midluteal

Male

<3.18 nmol/L

9.54–63.6 nmol/L

<3.18 nmol/L

<1.0 ng/mL

3–20 ng/mL

<1.0 ng/mL

Prolactin

Male

Female

53–360 mg/L

40–530 mg/L

2.5–17 ng/mL

1.9–25 ng/mL

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)

0.0–4.0 μg/L

0.0–4.0 ng/mL

Prostate-specific antigen, free

With total PSA between 4 and 10 μg/L and when the free PSA is:

>0.25 decreased risk of prostate cancer

<0.10 increased risk of prostate cancer

With total PSA between 4 and 10 ng/mL and when the free PSA is:

>25% decreased risk of prostate cancer

<10% increased risk of prostate cancer

Protein fractions:

Albumin

Globulin

Alpha₁

Alpha₂

Beta

Gamma

35–55 g/L

20–35 g/L

2–4 g/L

5–9 g/L

6–11 g/L

7–17 g/L

3.5–5.5 g/dL (50–60%)

2.0–3.5 g/dL (40–50%)

0.2–0.4 g/dL (4.2–7.2%)

0.5–0.9 g/dL (6.8–12%)

0.6–1.1 g/dL (9.3–15%)

0.7–1.7 g/dL (13–23%)

Protein, total

67–86 g/L

6.7–8.6 g/dL

Pyruvate

40–130 μmol/L

0.35–1.14 mg/dL

Rheumatoid factor

<15 kIU/L

<15 IU/mL

Serotonin

0.28–1.14 umol/L

50–200 ng/mL

Serum protein electrophoresis

Not applicable

Normal pattern

Sex hormone–binding globulin (adult)

Male

Female

11–80 nmol/L

30–135 nmol/L

11–80 nmol/L

30–135 nmol/L

Sodium

136–146 mmol/L

136–146 meq/L

Somatomedin-C (IGF-1) (adult)

16 years

17 years

18 years

19 years

20 years

21–25 years

26–30 years

31–35 years

36–40 years

41–45 years

46–50 years

51–55 years

56–60 years

61–65 years

226–903 μg/L

193–731 μg/L

163–584 μg/L

141–483 μg/L

127–424 μg/L

116–358 μg/L

117–329 μg/L

115–307 μg/L

119–204 μg/L

101–267 μg/L

94–252 μg/L

87–238 μg/L

81–225 μg/L

75–212 μg/L

226–903 ng/mL

193–731 ng/mL

163–584 ng/mL

141–483 ng/mL

127–424 ng/mL

116–358 ng/mL

117–329 ng/mL

115–307 ng/mL

119–204 ng/mL

101–267 ng/mL

94–252 ng/mL

87–238 ng/mL

81–225 ng/mL

75–212 ng/mL

66–70 years

71–75 years

76–80 years

81–85 years

69–200 μg/L

64–188 μg/L

59–177 μg/L

55–166 μg/L

69–200 ng/mL

64–188 ng/mL

59–177 ng/mL

55–166 ng/mL

Somatostatin

<25 ng/L

<25 pg/mL

Testosterone, free

Female, adult

Male, adult

10.4–65.9 pmol/L

312–1041 pmol/L

3–19 pg/mL

90–300 pg/mL

Testosterone, total,

Female

Male

0.21–2.98 nmol/L

9.36–37.10 nmol/L

6–86 ng/dL

270–1070 ng/dL

Thyroglobulin

1.3–31.8 μg/L

1.3–31.8 ng/mL

Thyroid-binding globulin

13–30 mg/L

1.3–3.0 mg/dL

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

0.34–4.25 mIU/L

0.34–4.25 μIU/mL

Thyroxine, free (fT₄)

9.0–16 pmol/L

0.7–1.24 ng/dL

Thyroxine, total (T₄)

70–151 nmol/L

5.4–11.7 μg/dL

Thyroxine index (free)

6.7–10.9

Transferrin

2.0–4.0 g/L

200–400 mg/dL

Triglycerides (see Table 5)

0.34–2.26 mmol/L

30–200 mg/dL

Triiodothyronine, free (fT₃)

3.7–6.5 pmol/L

2.4–4.2 pg/mL

Triiodothyronine, total (T₃)

1.2–2.1 nmol/L

77–135 ng/dL

Troponin I (method dependent)

S, P

99th percentile of a healthy population

0–0.04 μg/L

0–0.04 ng/mL

Troponin T

S, P

99th percentile of a healthy population

0–0.01 μg/L

0–0.01 ng/mL

Urea nitrogen

2.5–7.1 mmol/L

7–20 mg/dL

Uric acid

Females

Males

0.15–0.33 mmol/L

0.18–0.41 mmol/L

2.5–5.6 mg/dL

3.1–7.0 mg/dL

Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide

0–60 ng/L

0–60 pg/mL

Zinc protoporphyrin

0–400 μg/L

0–40 μg/dL

Zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP)-to-heme ratio

0–69 μmol ZPP/mol heme

Abbreviations: BCE, bone collagen equivalent; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; P, plasma; S, serum; WB, whole blood.

TABLE 3TOXICOLOGY AND THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING

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TABLE 3TOXICOLOGY AND THERAPEUTIC DRUG MONITORING

THERAPEUTIC RANGE

TOXIC LEVEL

DRUG

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Acetaminophen

66–199 μmol/L

10–30 μg/mL

>1320 μmol/L

>200 μg/mL

Amikacin

Peak

Trough

34–51 μmol/L

0–17 μmol/L

20–30 μg/mL

0–10 μg/mL

>60 μmol/L

>17 μmol/L

>35 μg/mL

>10 μg/mL

Amitriptyline–nortriptyline (total drug)

430–900 nmol/L

120–250 ng/mL

>1800 nmol/L

>500 ng/mL

Amphetamine

150–220 nmol/L

20–30 ng/mL

>1500 nmol/L

>200 ng/mL

Bromide

9.4–18.7 mmol/L

75–150 mg/dL

>18.8 mmol/L

>150 mg/dL

Mild toxicity

6.4–18.8 mmol/L

51–150 mg/dL

Severe toxicity

>18.8 mmol/L

>150 mg/dL

Lethal

>37.5 mmol/L

>300 mg/dL

Caffeine

25.8–103 μmol/L

5–20 μg/mL

>206 μmol/L

>40 μg/mL

Carbamazepine

17–42 μmol/L

4–10 μg/mL

>85 μmol/L

>20 μg/mL

Chloramphenicol

Peak

Trough

31–62 μmol/L

15–31 μmol/L

10–20 μg/mL

5–10 μg/mL

>77 μmol/L

>46 μmol/L

>25 μg/mL

>15 μg/mL

Chlordiazepoxide

1.7–10 μmol/L

0.5–3.0 μg/mL

>17μmol/L

>5.0 μg/mL

Clonazepam

32–240 nmol/L

10–75 ng/mL

>320 nmol/L

>100 ng/mL

Clozapine

0.6–2.1 μmol/L

200–700 ng/mL

>3.7 μmol/L

>1200 ng/mL

Cocaine

>3.3 μmol/L

>1.0 μg/mL

Codeine

43–110 nmol/mL

13–33 ng/mL

>3700 nmol/mL

>1100 ng/mL (lethal)

Cyclosporine

Renal transplant

0–6 months

6–12 months after transplant

>12 months

208–312 nmol/L

166–250 nmol/L

83–125 nmol/L

250–375 ng/mL

200–300 ng/mL

100–150 ng/mL

>312 nmol/L

>250 nmol/L

>125 nmol/L

>375 ng/mL

>300 ng/mL

>150 ng/mL

Cardiac transplant

0–6 months

6–12 months after transplant

>12 months

208–291 nmol/L

125–208 nmol/L

83–125 nmol/L

250–350 ng/mL

150–250 ng/mL

100–150 ng/mL

>291 nmol/L

>208 nmol/L

>125 nmol/L

>350 ng/mL

>250 ng/mL

150 ng/mL

Lung transplant

0–6 months

250–374 nmol/L

300–450 ng/mL

>374 nmol/L

>450 ng/mL

Liver transplant

Initiation

Maintenance

208–291 nmol/L

83–166 nmol/L

250–350 ng/mL

100–200 ng/mL

>291 nmol/L

>166 nmol/L

>350 ng/mL

>200 ng/mL

Desipramine

375–1130 nmol/L

100–300 ng/mL

>1880 nmol/L

>500 ng/mL

Diazepam (and metabolite)

Diazepam

Nordiazepam

0.7–3.5 μmol/L

0.4–6.6 μmol/L

0.2–1.0 μg/mL

0.1–1.8 μg/mL

>7.0 μmol/L

>9.2 μmol/L

>2.0 μg/mL

>2.5 μg/mL

Digoxin

0.64–2.6 nmol/L

0.5–2.0 ng/mL

>5.0 nmol/L

>3.9 ng/mL

Disopyramide

5.3–14.7 μmol/L

2–5 μg/mL

>20.6 μmol/L

>7 μg/mL

Doxepin and nordoxepin

Doxepin

Nordoxepin

0.36–0.98 μmol/L

0.38–1.04 μmol/L

101–274 ng/mL

106–291 ng/mL

>1.8 μmol/L

>1.9 μmol/L

>503 ng/mL

>531 ng/mL

Ethanol

Behavioral changes

Legal limit

Critical with acute exposure

>4.3 mmol/L

≥17 mmol/L

>54 mmol/L

>20 mg/dL

≥80 mg/dL

>250 mg/dL

Ethylene glycol

Toxic

Lethal

>2 mmol/L

>20 mmol/L

>12 mg/dL

>120 mg/dL

Ethosuximide

280–700 μmol/L

40–100 μg/mL

>700 μmol/L

>100 μg/mL

Everolimus

3.13–8.35 nmol/L

3–8 ng/mL

>12.5 nmol/L

>12 ng/mL

Flecainide

0.5–2.4 μmol/L

0.2–1.0 μg/mL

>3.6 μmol/L

>1.5 μg/mL

Gentamicin

Peak

Trough

10–21 μmol/mL

0–4.2 μmol/mL

5–10 μg/mL

0–2 μg/mL

>25 μmol/mL

>4.2 μmol/mL

>12 μg/mL

>2 μg/mL

Heroin (diacetyl morphine)

>700 μmol/L

>200 ng/mL (as morphine)

Ibuprofen

49–243 μmol/L

10–50 μg/mL

>970 μmol/L

>200 μg/mL

Imipramine (and metabolite)

Desimipramine

Total imipramine + desimipramine

375–1130 nmol/L

563–1130 nmol/L

100–300 ng/mL

150–300 ng/mL

>1880 nmol/L

>500 ng/mL

Lamotrigine

11.7–54.7 μmol/L

3–14 μg/mL

>58.7 μmol/L

>15 μg/mL

Lidocaine

5.1–21.3 μmol/L

1.2–5.0 μg/mL

>38.4 μmol/L

>9.0 μg/mL

Lithium

0.5–1.3 mmol/L

0.5–1.3 meq/L

>2 mmol/L

>2 meq/L

Methadone

1.0–3.2 μmol/L

0.3–1.0 μg/mL

>6.5 μmol/L

>2 μg/mL

Methamphetamine

0.07–0.34 μmol/L

0.01–0.05 μg/mL

>3.35 μmol/L

>0.5 μg/mL

Methanol

>6 mmol/L

>20 mg/dL

Methotrexate

Low-dose

High-dose (24 h)

High-dose (48 h)

High-dose (72 h)

0.01–0.1 μmol/L

<5.0 μmol/L

<0.50 μmol/L

<0.10 μmol/L

0.01–0.1 μmol/L

<5.0 μmol/L

<0.50 μmol/L

<0.10 μmol/L

>0.1 mmol/L

>5.0 μmol/L

>0.5 μmol/L

>0.1 μmol/L

>0.1 mmol/L

>5.0 μmol/L

>0.5 μmol/L

>0.1 μmol/L

Morphine

232–286 μmol/L

65–80 ng/mL

>720 μmol/L

>200 ng/mL

Mycophenolic acid

3.1–10.9 μmol/L

1.0–3.5 ng/mL

>37 μmol/L

>12 ng/mL

Nitroprusside (as thiocyanate)

103–499 μmol/L

6–29 μg/mL

860 μmol/L

>50 μg/mL

Nortriptyline

190–569 nmol/L

50–150 ng/mL

>1900 nmol/L

>500 ng/mL

Phenobarbital

65–172 μmol/L

15–40 μg/mL

>258 μmol/L

>60 μg/mL

Phenytoin

40–79 μmol/L

10–20 μg/mL

>158 μmol/L

>40 μg/mL

Phenytoin, free % Free

4.0–7.9 μg/mL

0.08–0.14

1–2 μg/mL

8–14%

>13.9 μg/mL

>3.5 μg/mL

Primidone and metabolite

Primidone

Phenobarbital

23–55 μmol/L

65–172 μmol/L

5–12 μg/mL

15–40 μg/mL

>69 μmol/L

>215 μmol/L

>15 μg/mL

>50 μg/mL

Procainamide

NAPA (N-acetylprocainamide)

17–42 μmol/L

22–72 μmol/L

4–10 μg/mL

6–20μg/mL

>43 μmol/L

>126 μmol/L

>10 μg/mL

>35 μg/mL

Quinidine

6.2–15.4 μmol/L

2.0–5.0 μg/mL

>19 μmol/L

>6 μg/mL

Salicylates

145–2100 μmol/L

2–29 mg/dL

>2900 μmol/L

>40 mg/dL

Sirolimus (trough level)

Kidney transplant

4.4–15.4 nmol/L

4–14 ng/mL

>16 nmol/L

>15 ng/mL

Tacrolimus (FK506) (trough)

Kidney and liver

12–19 nmol/L

10–15 ng/mL

>25 nmol/L

>20 ng/mL

Initiation

Maintenance

6–12 nmol/L

5–10 ng/mL

>25 nmol/L

>20 ng/mL

Heart

Initiation

19–25 nmol/L

15–20 ng/mL

Maintenance

6–12 nmol/L

5–10 ng/mL

Theophylline

56–111 μg/mL

10–20 μg/mL

>168 μg/mL

>30 μg/mL

Thiocyanate

After nitroprusside infusion

Nonsmoker

Smoker

103–499 μmol/L

17–69 μmol/L

52–206 μmol/L

6–29 μg/mL

1–4 μg/mL

3–12 μg/mL

860 μmol/L

>50 μg/mL

Tobramycin

Peak

Trough

11–22 μg/L

0–4.3 μg/L

5–10 μg/mL

0–2 μg/mL

>26 μg/L

>4.3 μg/L

>12 μg/mL

>2 μg/mL

Valproic acid

346–693 μmol/L

50–100 μg/mL

>693 μmol/L

>100 μg/mL

Vancomycin

Peak

Trough

14–28 μmol/L

3.5–10.4 μmol/L

20–40 μg/mL

5–15 μg/mL

>55 μmol/L

>14 μmol/L

>80 μg/mL

>20 μg/mL

TABLE 4VITAMINS AND SELECTED TRACE MINERALS

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TABLE 4VITAMINS AND SELECTED TRACE MINERALS

REFERENCE RANGE

SPECIMEN

ANALYTE

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Aluminum

<0.2 μmol/L

<5.41 μg/L

Arsenic

0.03–0.31 μmol/L

2–23 μg/L

Cadmium

<44.5 nmol/L

<5.0 μg/L

Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone)

433–1532 μg/L

β-Carotene

0.07–1.43 μmol/L

4–77 μg/dL

Copper

11–22 μmol/L

70–140 μg/dL

Folic acid

340–1020 nmol/L cells

150–450 ng/mL cells

Folic acid

12.2–40.8 nmol/L

5.4–18.0 ng/mL

Lead (adult)

<0.5 μmol/L

<10 μg/dL

Mercury

3.0–294 nmol/L

0.6–59 μg/L

Selenium

0.8–2.0 umol/L

63–160 μg/L

Vitamin A

0.7–3.5 μmol/L

20–100 μg/dL

Vitamin B₁ (thiamine)

0–75 nmol/L

0–2 μg/dL

Vitamin B₂ (riboflavin)

106–638 nmol/L

4–24 μg/dL

Vitamin B₆

20–121 nmol/L

5–30 ng/mL

Vitamin B₁₂

206–735 pmol/L

279–996 pg/mL

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

23–57 μmol/L

0.4–1.0 mg/dL

Vitamin D₃,1,25-dihydroxy, total

S, P

36–180 pmol/L

15–75 pg/mL

Vitamin D₃, 25-hydroxy, total

75–250 nmol/L

30–100 ng/mL

Vitamin E

12–42 μmol/L

5–18 μg/mL

Vitamin K

0.29–2.64 nmol/L

0.13–1.19 ng/mL

Zinc

11.5–18.4 μmol/L

75–120 μg/dL

Abbreviations: P, plasma; RC, red cells; S, serum; WB, whole blood.

TABLE 5CLASSIFICATION OF LDL, TOTAL, AND HDL CHOLESTEROL

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TABLE 5CLASSIFICATION OF LDL, TOTAL, AND HDL CHOLESTEROL

LDL Cholesterol

<70 mg/dL

Therapeutic option for very high risk patients

<100 mg/dL

Optimal

100–129 mg/dL

Near optimal/above optimal

130–159 mg/dL

Borderline high

160–189 mg/dL

High

≥190 mg/dL

Very high

Total Cholesterol

<200 mg/dL

Desirable

200–239 mg/dL

Borderline high

≥240 mg/dL

High

HDL Cholesterol

<40 mg/dL

Low

≥60 mg/dL

High

Abbreviations: LDL, low-density lipoprotein; HDL, high-density lipoprotein.

Source: Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III). JAMA 2001; 285:2486–97. Implications of Recent Clinical Trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines. SM Grundy et al for the Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program: Circulation 110:227, 2004.

REFERENCE VALUES FOR SPECIFIC ANALYTES

Listen

TABLE 6CEREBROSPINAL FLUID^a

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TABLE 6CEREBROSPINAL FLUID^a

REFERENCE RANGE

CONSTITUENT

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Osmolarity

292–297 mmol/kg water

292–297 mOsm/L

Electrolytes

Sodium

137–145 mmol/L

137–145 mEq/L

Potassium

2.7–3.9 mmol/L

2.7–3.9 mEq/L

Calcium

1.0–1.5 mmol/L

2.1–3.0 mEq/L

Magnesium

1.0–1.2 mmol/L

2.0–2.5 mEq/L

Chloride

116–122 mmol/L

116–122 mEq/L

CO₂ content

20–24 mmol/L

20–24 mEq/L

PCO₂

6–7 kPa

45–49 mm Hg

7.31–7.34

Glucose

2.22–3.89 mmol/L

40–70 mg/dL

Lactate

1–2 mmol/L

10–20 mg/dL

Total protein:

Lumbar

0.15–0.5 g/L

15–50 mg/dL

Cisternal

0.15–0.25 g/L

15–25 mg/dL

Ventricular

0.06–0.15 g/L

6–15 mg/dL

Albumin

0.066–0.442 g/L

6.6–44.2 mg/dL

IgG

0.009–0.057 g/L

0.9–5.7 mg/dL

IgG index^b

0.29–0.59

Oligoclonal bands (OGBs)

<2 bands not present in matched serum sample

Ammonia

15–47 μmol/L

25–80 μg/dL

Creatinine

44–168 μmol/L

0.5–1.9 mg/dL

Myelin basic protein

<4 μg/L

CSF pressure

50–180 mm H₂O

CSF volume (adult)

~150 mL

Red blood cells

Leukocytes

Total

0–5 mononuclear cells per μL

Differential

Lymphocytes

60–70%

Monocytes

30–50%

Neutrophils

None

^aSince cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations are equilibrium values, measurements of the same parameters in blood plasma obtained at the same time are recommended. However, there is a time lag in attainment of equilibrium, and CSF levels of plasma constituents that can fluctuate rapidly (such as plasma glucose) may not achieve stable values until after a significant lag phase.

^bIgG index = CSF IgG (mg/dL) × serum albumin (g/dL)/serum IgG (g/dL) × CSF albumin (mg/dL).

TABLE 7ADIFFERENTIAL NUCLEATED CELL COUNTS OF BONE MARROW ASPIRATES^a 2 AND 6

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TABLE 7ADIFFERENTIAL NUCLEATED CELL COUNTS OF BONE MARROW ASPIRATES^a 2 AND 6

OBSERVED RANGE (%)

95% RANGE (%)

MEAN (%)

Blast cells

0–3.2

0–3.0

1.4

Promyelocytes

3.6–13.2

3.2–12.4

7.8

Neutrophil myelocytes

4–21.4

3.7–10.0

7.6

Eosinophil myelocytes

0–5.0

0–2.8

1.3

Metamyelocytes

1–7.0

2.3–5.9

4.1

Neutrophils

Males

Females

21.0–45.6

29.6–46.6

21.9–42.3

28.8–45.9

32.1

37.4

Eosinophils

0.4–4.2

0.3–4.2

2.2

Eosinophils plus eosinophil myelocytes

0.9–7.4

0.7–6.3

3.5

Basophils

0–0.8

0–0.4

0.1

Erythroblasts

Male

Females

18.0–39.4

14.0–31.8

16.2–40.1

13.0–32.0

28.1

22.5

Lymphocytes

4.6–22.6

6.0–20.0

13.1

Plasma cells

0–1.4

0–1.2

0.6

Monocytes

0–3.2

0–2.6

1.3

Macrophages

0–1.8

0–1.3

0.4

M:E ratio

Males

Females

1.1–4.0

1.6–5.4

1.1–4.1

1.6–5.2

2.1

2.8

^aBased on bone marrow aspirate from 50 healthy volunteers (30 men, 20 women).

Abbreviation: M:E, myeloid to erythroid ratio.

Source: BJ Bain: Br J Haematol 94:206, 1996.

TABLE 7BBONE MARROW CELLULARITY

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TABLE 7BBONE MARROW CELLULARITY

AGE

OBSERVED RANGE

95% RANGE

MEAN

Under 10 years

59.0–95.1%

72.9–84.7%

78.8%

10–19 years

41.5–86.6%

59.2–69.4%

64.3%

20–29 years

32.0–83.7%

54.1–61.9%

58.0%

30–39 years

30.3–81.3%

41.1–54.1%

47.6%

40–49 years

16.3–75.1%

43.5–52.9%

48.2%

50–59 years

19.7–73.6%

41.2–51.4%

46.3%

60–69 years

16.3–65.7%

40.8–50.6%

45.7%

70–79 years

11.3–47.1%

22.6–35.2%

28.9%

Source: From RJ Hartsock et al: Am J Clin Pathol 1965; 43:326, 1965.

TABLE 8STOOL ANALYSIS

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TABLE 8STOOL ANALYSIS

REFERENCE RANGE

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Alpha-1-antitrypsin

≤540 mg/L

≤54 mg/dL

Amount

0.1–0.2 kg/d

100–200 g/24 h

Coproporphyrin

611–1832 nmol/d

400–1200 μg/24 h

Fat

Adult

Adult on fat-free diet

<7 g/d

<4 g/d

Fatty acids

0–21 mmol/d

0–6 g/24 h

Leukocytes

None

Nitrogen

<178 mmol/d

<2.5 g/24 h

7.0–7.5

Potassium

14–102 mmol/L

Occult blood

Negative

Osmolality

280–325 mosmol/kg

Sodium

7–72 mmol/L

Trypsin

20–95 U/g

Urobilinogen

85–510 μmol/d

50–300 mg/24 h

Uroporphyrins

12–48 nmol/d

10–40 μg/24 h

Water

<0.75

<75%

Source: Modified from: FT Fishbach, MB Dunning III: A Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 7th ed. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.

TABLE 9URINE ANALYSIS AND RENAL FUNCTION TESTS

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TABLE 9URINE ANALYSIS AND RENAL FUNCTION TESTS

REFERENCE RANGE

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Acidity, titratable

20–40 mmol/d

20–40 meq/d

Aldosterone

Normal diet: 6–25 μg/d

Low-salt diet: 17–44 μg/d

High-salt diet: 0–6 μg/d

Normal diet: 6–25 μg/d

Low-salt diet: 17–44 μg/d

High-salt diet: 0–6 μg/d

Aluminum

0.19–1.11 μmol/L

5–30 μg/L

Ammonia

30–50 mmol/d

30–50 meq/d

Amylase

4–400 U/L

Amylase/creatinine clearance ratio ([Cl_am/Cl_cr] × 100)

1–5

Arsenic

0.07–0.67 μmol/d

5–50 μg/d

Bence Jones protein, urine, qualitative

Not applicable

None detected

Bence Jones protein, urine, quantitative

Free Kappa

Free Lambda

K/L ratio

1.4–24.2 mg/L

0.2–6.7 mg/L

2.04–10.37

0.14–2.42 mg/dL

0.02–0.67 mg/dL

2.04–10.37

Calcium (10 mEq/d or 200 mg/d dietary calcium)

<7.5 mmol/d

<300 mg/d

Chloride

140–250 mmol/d

Citrate

320–1240 mg/d

Copper

<0.95 μmol/d

<60 μg/d

Coproporphyrins (types I and III)

0–20 μmol/mol creatinine

Cortisol, free

55–193 nmol/d

20–70 μg/d

Creatine, as creatinine

Female

Male

<760 μmol/d

<380 μmol/d

<100 mg/d

<50 mg/d

Creatinine

8.8–14 mmol/d

1.0–1.6 g/d

Dopamine

392–2876 nmol/d

60–440 μg/d

Eosinophils

<100 eosinophils/mL

Epinephrine

0–109 nmol/d

0–20 μg/d

Glomerular filtration rate

>60 mL/min/1.73 m²

For African Americans, multiply the result by 1.21

>60 mL/min/1.73 m²

For African Americans, multiply the result by 1.21

Glucose (glucose oxidase method)

0.3–1.7 mmol/d

50–300 mg/d

5-Hydroindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)

0–78.8 μmol/d

0–15 mg/d

Hydroxyproline

53–328 μmol/d

Iodine, spot urine

WHO classification of iodine deficiency:

Not iodine deficient

Mild iodine deficiency

Moderate iodine deficiency

Severe iodine deficiency

>100 μg/L

50–100 μg/L

20–49 μg/L

<20 μg/L

>100 μg/L

50–100 μg/L

20–49 μg/L

<20 μg/L

Ketone (acetone)

Negative

17 Ketosteroids

3–12 mg/d

Metanephrines

Metanephrine

Normetanephrine

30–350 μg/d

50–650 μg/d

30–350 μg/d

50–650 μg/d

Microalbumin

Normal

Microalbuminuria

Clinical albuminuria

0.0–0.03 g/d

0.03–0.30 g/d

>0.3 g/d

0–30 mg/d

30–300 mg/d

>300 mg/d

Microalbumin/creatinine ratio

Normal

Microalbuminuria

Clinical albuminuria

0–3.4 g/mol creatinine

3.4–34 g/mol creatinine

>34 g/mol creatinine

0–30 μg/mg creatinine

30–300 μg/mg creatinine

>300 μg/mg creatinine

β₂-Microglobulin

0–160 μg/L

Norepinephrine

89–473 nmol/d

15–80 μg/d

N-telopeptide (cross-linked), NTx

Female, premenopausal

Female, postmenopausal

Male

17–94 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

26–124 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

21–83 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

17–94 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

26–124 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

21–83 nmol BCE/mmol creatinine

Osmolality

100–800 mosm/kg

Oxalate

Male

Female

80–500 μmol/d

45–350 μmol/d

7–44 mg/d

4–31 mg/d

5.0–9.0

Phosphate (phosphorus) (varies with intake)

12.9–42.0 mmol/d

400–1300 mg/d

Porphobilinogen

None

Potassium (varies with intake)

25–100 mmol/d

25–100 meq/d

Protein

<0.15 g/d

<150 mg/d

Protein/creatinine ratio

Male: 15–68 mg/g

Female: 10–107 mg/g

Male: 15–68 mg/g

Female: 10–107 mg/g

Sediment

Red blood cells

White blood cells

Bacteria

Crystals

Bladder cells

Squamous cells

Tubular cells

Broad casts

Epithelial cell casts

Granular casts

Hyaline casts

Red blood cell casts

Waxy casts

White cell casts

0–2/high-power field

None

0–5/low-power field

None

Sodium (varies with intake)

100–260 mmol/d

100–260 meq/d

Specific gravity:

After 12-h fluid restriction

After 12-h deliberate water intake

>1.025

≤1.003

>1.025

≤1.003

Tubular reabsorption, phosphorus

0.79–0.94 of filtered load

79–94% of filtered load

Urea nitrogen

214–607 mmol/d

6–17 g/d

Uric acid (normal diet)

1.49–4.76 mmol/d

250–800 mg/d

Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA)

<30 μmol/d

<6 mg/d

Abbreviations: BCE, bone collagen equivalent; WHO, World Health Organization.

SPECIAL FUNCTION TESTS

Listen

TABLE 10NORMAL PRESSURES IN HEART AND GREAT VESSELS

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TABLE 10NORMAL PRESSURES IN HEART AND GREAT VESSELS

PRESSURE (mm Hg)

AVERAGE

RANGE

Right Atrium

Mean

2.8

1–5

a Wave

5.6

2.5–7

c Wave

3.8

1.5–6

x Wave

1.7

0–5

v Wave

4.6

2–7.5

y Wave

2.4

0–6

Right Ventricle

Peak systolic

17–32

End-diastolic

1–7

Pulmonary Artery

Mean

9–19

Peak systolic

17–32

End-diastolic

4–13

Pulmonary Artery Wedge

Mean

4.5–13

Left Atrium

Mean

7.9

2–12

a Wave

10.4

4–16

v Wave

12.8

6–21

Left Ventricle

Peak systolic

130

90–140

End-diastolic

8.7

5–12

Brachial Artery

Mean

70–105

Peak systolic

130

90–140

End-diastolic

60–90

Source: Reproduced from: MJ Kern The Cardiac Catheterization Handbook, 4th ed. Philadelphia, Mosby, 2003.

TABLE 11CIRCULATORY FUNCTION TESTS

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TABLE 11CIRCULATORY FUNCTION TESTS

RESULTS: REFERENCE RANGE

TEST

SI UNITS (RANGE)

CONVENTIONAL UNITS (RANGE)

Arteriovenous oxygen difference

30–50 mL/L

Cardiac output (Fick)

2.5–3.6 L/m² of body surface area per min

Contractility indexes

Max. left ventricular dp/dt (dp/dt)

220 kPa/s (176–250 kPa/s) (37.6 ± 12.2)/s

1650 mmHg/s (1320–1880 mmHg/s) (37.6 ± 12.2)/s

DP when DP = 5.3 kPa (40 mm Hg)

3.32 ± 0.84 end-diastolic volumes per second

Mean normalized systolic ejection rate (angiography)

Mean velocity of circumferential fiber shortening (angiography)

1.83 ± 0.56 circumferences per second

Ejection fraction: stroke volume/end-diastolic volume (SV/EDV)

0.67 ± 0.08 (0.55–0.78)

End-diastolic volume

70 ± 20.0 mL/m² (60–88 mL/m²)

End-systolic volume

25 ± 5.0 mL/m² (20–33 mL/m²)

Left ventricular work

Stroke work index

50 ± 20.0 (g·m)/m² (30–110)

Left ventricular minute work index

1.8–6.6 [(kg·m)/m²]/min

Oxygen consumption index

110–150 mL

Maximum oxygen uptake

35 mL/min (20–60 mL/min)

Pulmonary vascular resistance

2–12 (kPa·s)/L

20–130 (dyn·s)/cm⁵

Systemic vascular resistance

77–150 (kPa·s)/L

770–1600 (dyn·s)/cm⁵

Abbreviations: DP, developed left ventricular pressure.

Source: E Braunwald et al: Heart Disease, 6th ed. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co., 2001.

TABLE 12NORMAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE LIMITS AND PARTITION VALUES IN ADULTS

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TABLE 12NORMAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE LIMITS AND PARTITION VALUES IN ADULTS

WOMEN REFERENCE RANGE

MILDLY ABNORMAL

MODERATELY ABNORMAL

SEVERELY ABNORMAL

MEN REFERENCE RANGE

MILDLY ABNORMAL

MODERATELY ABNORMAL

SEVERELY ABNORMAL

Left ventricular dimensions

Septal thickness, cm

0.6–0.9

1.0–1.2

1.3–1.5

≥1.6

0.6–1.0

1.1–1.3

1.4–1.6

≥1.7

Posterior wall thickness, cm

0.6–0.9

1.0–1.2

1.3–1.5

≥1.6

0.6–1.0

1.1–1.3

1.4–1.6

≥1.7

Diastolic diameter, cm

3.9–5.3

5.4–5.7

5.8–6.1

≥6.2

4.2–5.9

6.0–6.3

6.4–6.8

≥6.9

Diastolic diameter/BSA, cm/m²

2.4–3.2

3.3–3.4

3.5–3.7

≥3.8

2.2–3.1

3.2–3.4

3.5–3.6

≥3.7

Diastolic diameter/height, cm/m

2.5–3.2

3.3–3.4

3.5–3.6

≥3.7

2.4–3.3

3.4–3.5

3.6–3.7

≥3.8

Left ventricular volumes

Diastolic, mL

56–104

105–117

118–130

≥131

67–155

156–178

179–201

≥202

Diastolic/BSA, mL/m²

35–75

76–86

87–96

≥97

35–75

76–86

87–96

≥97

Systolic, mL

19–49

50–59

60–69

≥70

22–58

59–70

71–82

≥83

Systolic/BSA, mL/m²

12–30

31–36

37–42

≥43

12–30

31–36

37–42

≥43

Left ventricular mass, 2D method

Mass, g

66–150

151–171

172–182

≥183

96–200

201–227

228–254

≥255

Mass/BSA, g/m²

44–88

89–100

101–112

≥113

50–102

103–116

117–130

≥131

Left ventricular function

Endocardial fractional shortening (%)

27–45

22–26

17–21

≤16

25–43

20–24

15–19

≤14

Midwall fractional shortening (%)

15–23

13–14

11–12

≤10

14–22

12–13

10–11

≤9

Ejection fraction, 2D method (%)

≥55

45–54

30–44

≤29

≥55

45–54

30–44

≤29

Right heart dimensions (cm)

Basal RV diameter

2.0–2.8

2.9–3.3

3.4–3.8

≥3.9

2.0–2.8

2.9–3.3

3.4–3.8

≥3.9

Mid-RV diameter

2.7–3.3

3.4–3.7

3.8–4.1

≥4.2

2.7–3.3

3.4–3.7

3.8–4.1

≥4.2

Base-to-apex length

7.1–7.9

8.0–8.5

8.6–9.1

≥9.2

7.1–7.9

8.0–8.5

8.6–9.1

≥9.2

RVOT diameter above aortic valve

2.5–2.9

3.0–3.2

3.3–3.5

≥3.6

2.5–2.9

3.0–3.2

3.3–3.5

≥3.6

RVOT diameter above pulmonic valve

1.7–2.3

2.4–2.7

2.8–3.1

≥3.2

1.7–2.3

2.4–2.7

2.8–3.1

≥3.2

Pulmonary artery diameter below pulmonic valve

1.5–2.1

2.2–2.5

2.6–2.9

≥3.0

1.5–2.1

2.2–2.5

2.6–2.9

≥3.0

Right ventricular size and function in 4-chamber view

Diastolic area, cm²

11–28

29–32

33–37

≥38

11–28

29–32

33–37

≥38

Systolic area, cm²

7.5–16

17–19

20–22

≥23

7.5–16

17–19

20–22

≥23

Fractional area change, %

32–60

25–31

18–24

≤17

32–60

25–31

18–24

≤17

Atrial sizes

LA diameter, cm

2.7–3.8

3.9–4.2

4.3–4.6

≥4.7

3.0–4.0

4.1–4.6

4.7–5.2

≥5.3

LA diameter/BSA, cm/m²

1.5–2.3

2.4–2.6

2.7–2.9

≥3.0

1.5–2.3

2.4–2.6

2.7–2.9

≥3.0

RA minor axis, cm

2.9–4.5

4.6–4.9

5.0–5.4

≥5.5

2.9–4.5

4.6–4.9

5.0–5.4

≥5.5

RA minor axis/BSA, cm/m²

1.7–2.5

2.6–2.8

2.9–3.1

≥3.2

1.7–2.5

2.6–2.8

2.9–3.1

≥3.2

LA area, cm²

<20

20–30

30–40

≥41

<20

20–30

30–40

≥41

LA volume, mL

22–52

53–62

63–72

≥73

18–58

59–68

69–78

≥79

LA volume/BSA, mL/m²

16–28

29–33

34–39

≥40

16–28

29–33

34–39

≥40

Aortic stenosis, classification of severity

Aortic jet velocity, m/s

2.6–2.9

3.0–4.0

>4.0

2.6–2.9

3.0–4.0

>4.0

Mean gradient, mm Hg

<20

20–40

>40

<20

20–40

>40

Valve area, cm²

>1.5

1.0–1.5

<1.0

>1.5

1.0–1.5

<1.0

Indexed valve area, cm²/m²

>0.85

0.60–0.85

<0.6

>0.85

0.60–0.85

<0.6

Velocity ratio

>0.50

0.25–0.50

<0.25

>0.50

0.25–0.50

<0.25

Mitral stenosis, classification of severity

Valve area, cm²

>1.5

1.0–1.5

<1.0

>1.5

1.0–1.5

<1.0

Mean gradient, mm Hg

5–10

>10

5–10

>10

Pulmonary artery pressure, mm Hg

<30

30–50

>50

<30

30–50

>50

Aortic regurgitation, indices of severity

Vena contracta width, cm

<0.30

0.30–0.60

≥0.60

<0.30

0.30–0.60

≥0.60

Jet width/LVOT width, %

<25

25–64

≥65

<25

25–64

≥65

Jet CSA/LVOT CSA, %

5–59

≥60

5–59

≥60

Regurgitant volume, mL/beat

<30

30–59

≥60

<30

30–59

≥60

Regurgitant fraction, %

<30

30–49

≥50

<30

30–49

≥50

Effective regurgitant orifice area, cm²

<0.10

0.10–0.29

≥0.30

<0.10

0.10–0.29

≥0.30

Mitral regurgitation, indices of severity

Vena contracta width, cm

<0.30

0.30–0.69

≥0.70

<0.30

0.30–0.69

≥0.70

Regurgitant volume, mL/beat

<30

30–59

≥60

<30

30–59

≥60

Regurgitant fraction, %

<30

30–49

≥50

<30

30–49

≥50

Effective regurgitant orifice area, cm²

<0.20

0.20–0.39

≥0.40

<0.20

0.20–0.39

≥0.40

Abbreviations: BSA, body surface area; CSA, cross-sectional area; LA, left atrium; LVOT, left ventricular outflow tract; RA, right atrium; RV, right ventricle; RVOT, right ventricular outflow tract; 2D, 2-dimensional.

Source: Values adapted from: American Society of Echocardiography, Guidelines and Standards. http://www.asecho.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3317. Accessed February 23, 2010.

TABLE 13SUMMARY OF VALUES USEFUL IN PULMONARY PHYSIOLOGY

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TABLE 13SUMMARY OF VALUES USEFUL IN PULMONARY PHYSIOLOGY

TYPICAL VALUES

SYMBOL

MAN AGED 40, 75 kg, 175 cm TALL

WOMAN AGED 40, 60 kg, 160 cm TALL

Pulmonary Mechanics

Spirometry—volume-time curves

Forced vital capacity (FVC)

FVC

5.0 L

3.4 L

Forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁)

FEV₁

4.0 L

2.8 L

FEV₁/FVC

FEV₁%

80%

78%

Maximal midexpiratory flow rate

MMEF (FEF 25–75)

4.1 L/s

3.2 L/s

Maximal expiratory flow rate

MEFR (FEF 200–1200)

9.0 L/s

6.1 L/s

Spirometry—flow-volume curves

Maximal expiratory flow at 50% of expired vital capacity

V_max 50 (FEF 50%)

5.0 L/s

4.0 L/s

Maximal expiratory flow at 75% of expired vital capacity

V_max 75 (FEF 75%)

2.1 L/s

2.0 L/s

Resistance to airflow:

Pulmonary resistance

RL (R_L)

<3.0 (cm H₂O/s)/L

Airway resistance

Raw

<2.5 (cm H₂O/s)/L

Specific conductance

SGaw

>0.13 cm H₂O/s

Pulmonary compliance

Static recoil pressure at total lung capacity

Pst TLC

25 ± 5 cm H₂O

Compliance of lungs (static)

0.2 L cm H₂O

Compliance of lungs and thorax

C(L + T)

0.1 L cm H₂O

Dynamic compliance of 20 breaths per minute

C dyn 20

0.25 ± 0.05 L/cm H₂O

Maximal static respiratory pressures:

Maximal inspiratory pressure

MIP

>110 cm H₂O

>70 cm H₂O

Maximal expiratory pressure

MEP

>200 cm H₂O

>140 cm H₂O

Lung Volumes

Total lung capacity

TLC

6.9 L

4.9 L

Functional residual capacity

FRC

3.3 L

2.6 L

Residual volume

1.9 L

1.5 L

Inspiratory capacity

3.7 L

2.3 L

Expiratory reserve volume

ERV

1.4 L

1.1 L

Vital capacity

5.0 L

3.4 L

Gas Exchange (Sea Level)

Arterial O₂ tension

PaO₂

12.7 ± 0.7 kPa (95 ± 5 mm Hg)

Arterial CO₂ tension

PaCO₂

5.3 ± 0.3 kPa (40 ± 2 mm Hg)

Arterial O₂ saturation

SaO₂

0.97 ± 0.02 (97 ± 2%)

Arterial blood pH

7.40 ± 0.02

Arterial bicarbonate

HCO₃^–

24 + 2 mEq/L

Base excess

0 ± 2 mEq/L

Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (single breath)

DL_CO

37 mL CO/min/mmHg 27 mL CO/min/mmHg

Dead space volume

V_D

2 mL/kg body wt

Physiologic dead space; dead space-tidal volume ratio

V_D/V_T

Rest

≤35% V_T

Exercise

≤20% V_T

Alveolar–arterial difference for O₂

P(A – a)_O2

≤2.7 kPa ≤20 kPa (≤24 mm Hg)

Source: Based on: AH Morris et al: Clinical Pulmonary Function Testing. A Manual of Uniform Laboratory Procedures, 2nd ed. Salt Lake City, Utah, Intermountain Thoracic Society, 1984.

TABLE 14GASTROINTESTINAL TESTS

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TABLE 14GASTROINTESTINAL TESTS

RESULTS

TEST

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Absorption tests

D-Xylose: after overnight fast, 25 g xylose given in oral aqueous solution

Urine, collected for following 5 h

25% of ingested dose

Serum, 2 h after dose

2.0–3.5 mmol/L

30–52 mg/dL

Vitamin A: a fasting blood specimen is obtained and 200,000 units of vitamin A in oil is given orally

Serum level should rise to twice fasting level in 3–5 h

Bentiromide test (pancreatic function): 500 mg bentiromide (chymex) orally; p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) measured

Plasma

>3.6 (±1.1) μg/mL at 90 min

Urine

>50% recovered in 6 h

Gastric juice

Volume

24 h

2–3 L

Nocturnal

600–700 mL

Basal, fasting

30–70 mL/h

Reaction

1.6–1.8

Titratable acidity of fasting juice

4–9 μmol/s

15–35 mEq/h

Acid output

Basal

Females (mean ± 1 SD)

0.6 ± 0.5 μmol/s

2.0 ± 1.8 mEq/h

Males (mean ± 1 SD)

0.8 ± 0.6 μmol/s

3.0 ± 2.0 mEq/h

Maximal (after SC histamine acid phosphate, 0.004 mg/kg body weight, and preceded by 50 mg promethazine, or after betazole, 1.7 mg/kg body weight, or pentagastrin, 6 μg/kg body weight)

Females (mean ± 1 SD)

4.4 ± 1.4 μmol/s

16 ± 5 mEq/h

Males (mean ± 1 SD)

6.4 ± 1.4 μmol/s

23 ± 5 mEq/h

Basal acid output/maximal acid output ratio

≤0.6

Gastrin, serum

0–200 μg/L

0–200 pg/mL

Secretin test (pancreatic exocrine function): 1 unit/kg body weight, IV

Volume (pancreatic juice) in 80 min

>2.0 mL/kg

Bicarbonate concentration

>80 mmol/L

>80 mEq/L

Bicarbonate output in 30 min

>10 mmol

>10 mEq

MISCELLANEOUS

Listen

TABLE 15BODY FLUIDS AND OTHER MASS DATA

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TABLE 15BODY FLUIDS AND OTHER MASS DATA

REFERENCE RANGE

SI UNITS

CONVENTIONAL UNITS

Ascitic fluid

Body fluid

Total volume (lean) of body weight

Intracellular

Extracellular

50% (in obese) to 70%

30-40% of body weight

20-30% of body weight

Blood

Total volume

Males

69 mL/kg body weight

Females

65 mL/kg body weight

Plasma volume

Males

39 mL/kg body weight

Females

40 mL/kg body weight

Red blood cell volume

Males

30 mL/kg body weight

1.15–1.21 L/m² of body surface area

Females

25 mL/kg body weight

0.95–1.00 L/m² of body surface area

Body mass index

18.5–24.9 kg/m²

TABLE 16RADIATION-DERIVED UNITS

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TABLE 16RADIATION-DERIVED UNITS

QUANTITY

MEASURES

OLD UNIT

SI UNIT

SPECIAL NAME FOR SI UNIT (ABBREVIATION)

CONVERSION

Activity

Rate of radioactive decay

curie (Ci)

Disintegrations per second (dps)

becquerel (Bq)

1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq

1 mCi = 37 MBq

1 Bq = 2.703 × 10^–11 Ci

Exposure

Amount of ionizations produced in dry air by x-rays or gamma rays, per unit of mass

roentgen (R)

Coulomb per kilogram (C/kg)

none

1 C/kg = 3876 R

1 R = 2.58 × 10^–4 C/kg

1 mR = 258 pC/kg

Air kerma

Sum of initial energies of charged particles liberated by ionizing radiation in air, per unit of mass

rad

Joule per kilogram (J/kg)

gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 100 rad

1 rad = 0.01 Gy

1 mrad = 10 μGy

Absorbed dose

Energy deposited per unit of mass in a medium, e.g., an organ/tissue

rad

Joule per kilogram (J/kg)

gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 100 rad

1 rad = 0.01 Gy

1 mrad = 10 μGy

Equivalent dose

Energy deposited per unit of mass in a medium, e.g., an organ/tissue, weighted to reflect type(s) of radiation

rem

Joule per kilogram (J/kg)

sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 100 rem

1 rem = 0.01 Sv

1 mrem = 10 μSv

Effective dose

Energy deposited per unit of mass in a reference individual, doubly weighted to reflect type(s) of radiation and organ(s) irradiated

rem

Joule per kilogram (J/kg)

sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 100 rem

1 rem = 0.01 Sv

1 mrem = 10 μSv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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The contributions of Drs. Daniel J. Fink, Patrick M. Sluss, James L. Januzzi, and Kent B. Lewandrowski to this chapter in previous editions of Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine are gratefully acknowledged. We also express our gratitude to Drs. Amudha Palanisamy and Scott Fink for careful review of tables and helpful suggestions.

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APPENDIX: LABORATORY VALUES OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

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INTRODUCTION

REFERENCE VALUES FOR LABORATORY TESTS

REFERENCE VALUES FOR SPECIFIC ANALYTES

SPECIAL FUNCTION TESTS

MISCELLANEOUS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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